the man in my avatar 
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Ernessto Botto was born in Turin on 8 November 1907 and entered the Air Force Academy in 1929. He received his pilot license in 1932 and his military pilot license in 1933.
He was assigned to the 1o Stormo C.T. in 1933 and was transferred to the 53o Stormo C.T. in 1936. He then served in the Reparto Alta Velocità (High Speed Unit) before being assigned to the 4o Stormo in 1937.
During his time in the 4o Stormo he was commander of the 84a Squadriglia.
He volunteered for service in the Spanish Civil War in April 1937, leaving the command of the 84a Squadriglia to Paolo Arcangeletti.
Capitano Botto arrived in Spain in April 1937 together with VIo Gruppo (Squadriglie 31a and 32a), under the command of Maggiore Leotta. Botto was at this time commanding officer of 32a Squadriglia.
He flew his first operational sortie on 8 May when they escorted a section of Nationalist Ro.37bis.
Until 5 June 32a Squadriglia was employed for interdiction and escort duties.
On 12 June they were transferred to Soria and on 5 July they moved on to Villarcayo.
The first battle with Republican fighters came on 16 July when 32a Squadriglia scrambled from Villarcayo to intercept some Ratas of 2a/Gr. 21. Three I-16s were claimed Botto jointly with his pilots.
On 6 August a group of Chatos and Ratas attacked two Ro.37bis at 2000 meters over Torrelavega.
They were surprised by VIo Gruppo, which was escorting the Ro.37bis and flying at 4000 meters. Sergente Gaetano Bortolini claimed an I-16, which was pursuing another Fiat. Meanwhile, Capitano Botto manoeuvred himself into a 6 o’clock position of a Chato. He shot it down and it dived into the ground.
VIo Gruppo claimed eight Rata and a single Chato without any losses.
During the Santander offensive on 14 August VIo Gruppo performed many escort missions. Botto flew up to five missions per day.
On 22 August while flying an escort mission over Ontaneda Botto claimed two Chatos in a few minutes.
The next day on 23 August he claimed two shared I-15s together with four other pilots from VIo Gruppo.
On 28 August VIo Gruppo was transferred from Villarcayo to Alfamèn.
The following days Botto flew three escort missions.
On 1 September nine CR.32s from 32a Squadriglia chased a mixed squadron of Polikarpovs and claimed two Chatos and two Ratas. On of the I-16s were claimed by Botto.
Republicans admitted only a Chato lost.
On 12 October ten CR.32s of 31a Squadriglia (Capitano Ugo Borgogno) were patrolling at 3500 m over Fuentes del Ebro while eight more from 32a Squadriglia led by Botto, did the same at 5000 meters. The two Squadriglie were dived into four flights and the other two flights were led by Tenente Oscar Molinari and Tenente Alessio Neri. They had taken off from Zaragoza at 08.00 in the morning.
Over Mediana Borgogno spotted nine SB-2s escorted by twenty-five Polikarpovs; I-15s near the Tupolevs and I-16s at a higher altitude. A young and inexperienced pilot from 31a Squadriglia started the attack too early, thus putting the entire Squadriglia in disadvantage and exposing it to the attack of Ratas. Botto together with the rest of 32a Squadriglia climbed to the Ratas.
In the ensuing combat Botto claimed one I-16 and the others were dispersed. However, during the combat an explosive bullet hit him in the right thighbone. He nevertheless managed to reach Sanjurjo and land but the limb was to be amputated. In the combat Paolo Arcangeletti claimed two additional I-16s.
Totally five CR.32s were lost down in this combat. Sottotenente Francis Leoncini and Sergente Maggiore Ugo Corsi collided in flight and Corsi was captured and taken POW. Tenente Neri (captured and shot) and Sergente Giuseppe Rigolli (killed) was shot down and Sottotenente Roberto Boschetto was forced to crash-land in enemy territory.
Botto, Neri and Rigolli were decorated with the Medaglia d'Oro al Valor Militare (Italy's highest military award) after this combat, the last two of them posthumously.
However his amputation didn’t prevent him to serve again and all his squadron mates nicknamed him ‘Gamba di Ferro’ (Iron Leg) after his artificial leg. A badge was created by Sergente Maggiore Bruno Benassi and adopted by the whole VIo Gruppo depicting an iron leg over an axe.
In the Regia Aeronautica Capitano Botto's insignia was later adopted by the 96a Squadriglia of 4o Stormo and, later on in the ANR (which Botto, risen to the rank of Tenente Colonello, virtually created by emanating a call to arms to all the Italian pilots that caused the adhesion of many), the insignia was adopted by the 3a Squadriglia of IIo Gruppo Caccia.
Botto returned from Spain in May 1938. He claimed 5 biplane victories during this conflict and 16 shared.
The original "Gamba di Ferro" cloth badge applied on the flying uniform of ANR's 3a Squadriglia, IIo Gruppo Caccia pilots. © Archive D'Amico-Valentini
Photo kindly via Ferdinando D'Amico.
After his return from Spain he served as commander of the 73a Squadriglia of the 4o Stormo C.T.
Maggiore Botto was Gruppo Commander of 9o Gruppo when the unit arrived to Sicily in the beginning of July 1940 to fly missions in the assault on Malta.
The first Italian fighter claim for an aircraft shot down over Malta was made by Botto during the morning of 3 July 1940. Two S.79s approached the island on reconnaissance, escorted by nine CR.42s, three each from 73a, 96a and 97a Squadriglias, led by the Gruppo Commander, Maggiore Ernesto Botto. Flying Officer John Waters flying one of the new Hurricanes (P2614), attacked the pair of bombers, which were from the 259a Squadriglia, 109o Gruppo, 36o Stormo B.T., which unit had just arrived in Sicily. The fire from the Hurricane’s eight guns proved devastating and the bomber fell into the sea five miles from Kalafrana, breaking up as it went. Tenente Mario Squario’s crew of five baled out, but none were ever found. This was the first victory for Hurricanes over Malta. As Waters returned to land, he was set upon by the CR.42s and his aircraft was badly shot up. As a result he crashed on landing and the aircraft was written off, although Waters survived unhurt. Maggiore Botto was personally credited with the victory (initially this claim was recorded as a ‘Spitfire’).
On the 12th July the 9o Gruppo C.T. was ordered to fly on to Libya, to operate in the desert.
Photo taken of Ernesto Botto flying a 73a Squadriglia CR.42 over North Africa during the return from a mission.
Image kindly provided by Fulvio Chianese at GORIZIA ed il QUARTO STORMO.
During a routine armed reconnaissance patrol along the Allied frontline on the evening of 12 October, Giulio Reiner accompanied his gruppo commander, Botto.
Having completed an uneventful patrol, the two pilots were approaching their El Adem base when they spotted three Blenheims preparing to bomb the airfield. They immediately attacked. Following a long and drawn-out encounter, Reiner was credited with two bombers destroyed and Botto one.
This was three Blenheims from 55 Squadron, which had taken off loaded with small bombs at 16:15 from Fuka Main (LG 17), Egypt to bomb Italian aircraft on El Adem (LG 144), Libya. The formation made out to sea and climbed to a height of about 18,000 ft, reached a point about 30 miles North of Tobruk, when a turn on the target was made. At 17:50 the attack was carried out from a height of 9,000ft (rather too early, as the sun was still up). During the run on, the formation was attacked by three CR.42s. Bombs fell in the target area and bursts were seen among the aircraft on the north side of the aerodrome. The Italian fighters persisted in their attack, firing .5” tracer from about 800 yds and closing in to fire their small caliber guns. The British formation took evasive action but unfortunately split up. No. 2 (Blenheim L1538) flown by Flying Officer K. D. Potter (RAF no. 72454) was unable to keep up with the leader. No. 3 (Blenheim L8530) flown by Pilot Officer M. S. Singleton (RAF no. 41482) was hit in the starboard engine, the fuselage was riddled, wireless and intercommunication unusable, both rudder control badly damage, the tail-wheel shot through and the rudder trim gear also unusable. Although the Blenheim was badly damaged the pilot managed to return to base. The Blenheim was categorized as Damaged Beyond Repair. The observer Sergeant B. J Fox (RAF no. 544933) and the wireless operator/air gunner Sergeant I. Brownrigg (RAF (VR) no. 751215) escaped uninjured.
The leader, (Blenheim L6659) flown by Flying Officer G. E. P. Green (RAF no. 39517) made for the coast near Ras el Miln and the fighter following him continued the engagement for about 10 minutes before breaking off the attack. This aircraft then continued to base by its self, badly hit. Green was wounded under his right arm - a flesh wound, and the observer, Flight Sergeant W. H. Weller (RAF no. 747800) was slightly hurt by shrapnel. The undercarriage was damaged and the turret and W/T set were both rendered U/S. This aircraft was fired on by shore defences at Mersa Matruh but no further damage was done and it landed on it belly at base with the aid of the observer and the wireless operator/air gunner, Sergeant J. McGarry (RAF (VR) no. 537996). The pilot was awarded a DFC and the observer and gunner awarded mentions in despatches for the action. L6659 was finally lost with 70 OTU on 27 February 1942 in Kenya when it burst a tire on take-off and the undercarriage collapsed at Nakuru.
. No. 2 aircraft when left by the formation dived to ground level and escaped. This Blenheim suffered only a few holes in the rudder. The observer Sergeant Duffy (RAF no. 517479) and the wireless operator/air gunner Sergeant B. Noble (RAF no. 545120) escaped uninjured. This aircraft was finally lost when it crashed in bad visibility near Fuka on 18 October 1940.
In the afternoon on 9 December S.79s were out to bomb British troops at the Sidi el Barrani - Bir Enba area. They were to be escorted by nineteen CR.42s of 9o Gruppo led by Maggiore Botto. However the escort failed to rendezvous with the S.79s and Botto decided to patrol the front. 30 km south of Bir Enba they spotted some Gladiators at a lower level and dived on them, but suddenly the CR.42s were jumped by a reported two Squadrons of Hurricanes, attacking respectively 73a Squadriglia and 96a Squadriglia with 97a Squadriglia. A large dogfight started and many claims were submitted by the Italian pilots when they claimed eight shot down and three probables. At the end Botto, Sergente Enrico Dallari, Sergente Antonio Valle, Sergente Maggiore Otello Perotti and Sergente Angelo Golino claimed an enemy fighter each while Tenente Riccardo Vaccari, Sergente Maggiore Massimo Salvatore and Sergente Maggiore Guglielmo Biffani claimed one Hurricane each. Probables were claimed by Sottotenente Valerio De Campo, Giulio Reiner and Sergente Santo Gino. During the combat three Fiats were shot down but Sergente Nanin and Sergente Bogoni both survived while Sergente Maggiore Biffani baled out and was captured. Four other CR.42s carried out emergency landings (probably Viglione, Vaccari, Golino and a fourth unknown pilot). Three of these pilots were wounded, one of which turned over at the emergency landing and caught fire; the pilot (Tenente Vaccari) was badly burned. Another wounded pilot was Golino.
It seems that they had clashed with 33 Squadron, which reported that they had been intercepted by three formations of CR.42s while ground strafing. The British pilots claimed three and reported another going down out of control. One of the Squadron’s Hurricanes had to force-land but the pilot was saved. Flying Officer Vernon Woodward shot down two of the Fiats, one of them in flames, and damaged another.
The second squadron was probably 274, which reported meeting 27 CR.42s over the Sidi Barrani-Sofafi area. The Hurricane pilots reporting five confirmed victories and three probables for one Hurricane damaged. Victories were claimed by Flight Lieutenant Peter Wykeham-Barnes (plus one probable) (V7300), Squadron Leader Patrick Dunn (plus two probables) (P3723), Flying Officer T. L. Patterson (P3720), Flight Lieutenant Lapsley (V7293) and Flying Officer E. M. Mason (P3722).
Totally the Italian authorities declared they had shot down 18 RAF machines (at least one Blenheim) but admitted that they had lost twelve during the day.
That same day, after landing, Botto was involved in a car accident; he suffered a fracture at the base of the skull, but luckily again survived.
After convalescence he received administrative work before being assigned as commander of the Fighter School as a Tenente Colonello.
After the Italian surrender in September 1943 he virtually created the pro-German A.N.R. (Aeronautiva Nazionale Repubblicana) after that the Mussolini headed Repubblica Sociale Italiana (RSI) had been formed. He was however sacked from A.N.R. in March 1944.
Botto ended the war with 8 biplane victories. 5 of these were claimed during the Spanish Civil War.
During the war he was also decorated with the Medaglie d’argento.
Ernesto Botto passed away on 11 December 1984.
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Ernessto Botto was born in Turin on 8 November 1907 and entered the Air Force Academy in 1929. He received his pilot license in 1932 and his military pilot license in 1933.
He was assigned to the 1o Stormo C.T. in 1933 and was transferred to the 53o Stormo C.T. in 1936. He then served in the Reparto Alta Velocità (High Speed Unit) before being assigned to the 4o Stormo in 1937.
During his time in the 4o Stormo he was commander of the 84a Squadriglia.
He volunteered for service in the Spanish Civil War in April 1937, leaving the command of the 84a Squadriglia to Paolo Arcangeletti.
Capitano Botto arrived in Spain in April 1937 together with VIo Gruppo (Squadriglie 31a and 32a), under the command of Maggiore Leotta. Botto was at this time commanding officer of 32a Squadriglia.
He flew his first operational sortie on 8 May when they escorted a section of Nationalist Ro.37bis.
Until 5 June 32a Squadriglia was employed for interdiction and escort duties.
On 12 June they were transferred to Soria and on 5 July they moved on to Villarcayo.
The first battle with Republican fighters came on 16 July when 32a Squadriglia scrambled from Villarcayo to intercept some Ratas of 2a/Gr. 21. Three I-16s were claimed Botto jointly with his pilots.
On 6 August a group of Chatos and Ratas attacked two Ro.37bis at 2000 meters over Torrelavega.
They were surprised by VIo Gruppo, which was escorting the Ro.37bis and flying at 4000 meters. Sergente Gaetano Bortolini claimed an I-16, which was pursuing another Fiat. Meanwhile, Capitano Botto manoeuvred himself into a 6 o’clock position of a Chato. He shot it down and it dived into the ground.
VIo Gruppo claimed eight Rata and a single Chato without any losses.
During the Santander offensive on 14 August VIo Gruppo performed many escort missions. Botto flew up to five missions per day.
On 22 August while flying an escort mission over Ontaneda Botto claimed two Chatos in a few minutes.
The next day on 23 August he claimed two shared I-15s together with four other pilots from VIo Gruppo.
On 28 August VIo Gruppo was transferred from Villarcayo to Alfamèn.
The following days Botto flew three escort missions.
On 1 September nine CR.32s from 32a Squadriglia chased a mixed squadron of Polikarpovs and claimed two Chatos and two Ratas. On of the I-16s were claimed by Botto.
Republicans admitted only a Chato lost.
On 12 October ten CR.32s of 31a Squadriglia (Capitano Ugo Borgogno) were patrolling at 3500 m over Fuentes del Ebro while eight more from 32a Squadriglia led by Botto, did the same at 5000 meters. The two Squadriglie were dived into four flights and the other two flights were led by Tenente Oscar Molinari and Tenente Alessio Neri. They had taken off from Zaragoza at 08.00 in the morning.
Over Mediana Borgogno spotted nine SB-2s escorted by twenty-five Polikarpovs; I-15s near the Tupolevs and I-16s at a higher altitude. A young and inexperienced pilot from 31a Squadriglia started the attack too early, thus putting the entire Squadriglia in disadvantage and exposing it to the attack of Ratas. Botto together with the rest of 32a Squadriglia climbed to the Ratas.
In the ensuing combat Botto claimed one I-16 and the others were dispersed. However, during the combat an explosive bullet hit him in the right thighbone. He nevertheless managed to reach Sanjurjo and land but the limb was to be amputated. In the combat Paolo Arcangeletti claimed two additional I-16s.
Totally five CR.32s were lost down in this combat. Sottotenente Francis Leoncini and Sergente Maggiore Ugo Corsi collided in flight and Corsi was captured and taken POW. Tenente Neri (captured and shot) and Sergente Giuseppe Rigolli (killed) was shot down and Sottotenente Roberto Boschetto was forced to crash-land in enemy territory.
Botto, Neri and Rigolli were decorated with the Medaglia d'Oro al Valor Militare (Italy's highest military award) after this combat, the last two of them posthumously.
However his amputation didn’t prevent him to serve again and all his squadron mates nicknamed him ‘Gamba di Ferro’ (Iron Leg) after his artificial leg. A badge was created by Sergente Maggiore Bruno Benassi and adopted by the whole VIo Gruppo depicting an iron leg over an axe.
In the Regia Aeronautica Capitano Botto's insignia was later adopted by the 96a Squadriglia of 4o Stormo and, later on in the ANR (which Botto, risen to the rank of Tenente Colonello, virtually created by emanating a call to arms to all the Italian pilots that caused the adhesion of many), the insignia was adopted by the 3a Squadriglia of IIo Gruppo Caccia.
Botto returned from Spain in May 1938. He claimed 5 biplane victories during this conflict and 16 shared.
The original "Gamba di Ferro" cloth badge applied on the flying uniform of ANR's 3a Squadriglia, IIo Gruppo Caccia pilots. © Archive D'Amico-Valentini
Photo kindly via Ferdinando D'Amico.
After his return from Spain he served as commander of the 73a Squadriglia of the 4o Stormo C.T.
Maggiore Botto was Gruppo Commander of 9o Gruppo when the unit arrived to Sicily in the beginning of July 1940 to fly missions in the assault on Malta.
The first Italian fighter claim for an aircraft shot down over Malta was made by Botto during the morning of 3 July 1940. Two S.79s approached the island on reconnaissance, escorted by nine CR.42s, three each from 73a, 96a and 97a Squadriglias, led by the Gruppo Commander, Maggiore Ernesto Botto. Flying Officer John Waters flying one of the new Hurricanes (P2614), attacked the pair of bombers, which were from the 259a Squadriglia, 109o Gruppo, 36o Stormo B.T., which unit had just arrived in Sicily. The fire from the Hurricane’s eight guns proved devastating and the bomber fell into the sea five miles from Kalafrana, breaking up as it went. Tenente Mario Squario’s crew of five baled out, but none were ever found. This was the first victory for Hurricanes over Malta. As Waters returned to land, he was set upon by the CR.42s and his aircraft was badly shot up. As a result he crashed on landing and the aircraft was written off, although Waters survived unhurt. Maggiore Botto was personally credited with the victory (initially this claim was recorded as a ‘Spitfire’).
On the 12th July the 9o Gruppo C.T. was ordered to fly on to Libya, to operate in the desert.
Photo taken of Ernesto Botto flying a 73a Squadriglia CR.42 over North Africa during the return from a mission.
Image kindly provided by Fulvio Chianese at GORIZIA ed il QUARTO STORMO.
During a routine armed reconnaissance patrol along the Allied frontline on the evening of 12 October, Giulio Reiner accompanied his gruppo commander, Botto.
Having completed an uneventful patrol, the two pilots were approaching their El Adem base when they spotted three Blenheims preparing to bomb the airfield. They immediately attacked. Following a long and drawn-out encounter, Reiner was credited with two bombers destroyed and Botto one.
This was three Blenheims from 55 Squadron, which had taken off loaded with small bombs at 16:15 from Fuka Main (LG 17), Egypt to bomb Italian aircraft on El Adem (LG 144), Libya. The formation made out to sea and climbed to a height of about 18,000 ft, reached a point about 30 miles North of Tobruk, when a turn on the target was made. At 17:50 the attack was carried out from a height of 9,000ft (rather too early, as the sun was still up). During the run on, the formation was attacked by three CR.42s. Bombs fell in the target area and bursts were seen among the aircraft on the north side of the aerodrome. The Italian fighters persisted in their attack, firing .5” tracer from about 800 yds and closing in to fire their small caliber guns. The British formation took evasive action but unfortunately split up. No. 2 (Blenheim L1538) flown by Flying Officer K. D. Potter (RAF no. 72454) was unable to keep up with the leader. No. 3 (Blenheim L8530) flown by Pilot Officer M. S. Singleton (RAF no. 41482) was hit in the starboard engine, the fuselage was riddled, wireless and intercommunication unusable, both rudder control badly damage, the tail-wheel shot through and the rudder trim gear also unusable. Although the Blenheim was badly damaged the pilot managed to return to base. The Blenheim was categorized as Damaged Beyond Repair. The observer Sergeant B. J Fox (RAF no. 544933) and the wireless operator/air gunner Sergeant I. Brownrigg (RAF (VR) no. 751215) escaped uninjured.
The leader, (Blenheim L6659) flown by Flying Officer G. E. P. Green (RAF no. 39517) made for the coast near Ras el Miln and the fighter following him continued the engagement for about 10 minutes before breaking off the attack. This aircraft then continued to base by its self, badly hit. Green was wounded under his right arm - a flesh wound, and the observer, Flight Sergeant W. H. Weller (RAF no. 747800) was slightly hurt by shrapnel. The undercarriage was damaged and the turret and W/T set were both rendered U/S. This aircraft was fired on by shore defences at Mersa Matruh but no further damage was done and it landed on it belly at base with the aid of the observer and the wireless operator/air gunner, Sergeant J. McGarry (RAF (VR) no. 537996). The pilot was awarded a DFC and the observer and gunner awarded mentions in despatches for the action. L6659 was finally lost with 70 OTU on 27 February 1942 in Kenya when it burst a tire on take-off and the undercarriage collapsed at Nakuru.
. No. 2 aircraft when left by the formation dived to ground level and escaped. This Blenheim suffered only a few holes in the rudder. The observer Sergeant Duffy (RAF no. 517479) and the wireless operator/air gunner Sergeant B. Noble (RAF no. 545120) escaped uninjured. This aircraft was finally lost when it crashed in bad visibility near Fuka on 18 October 1940.
In the afternoon on 9 December S.79s were out to bomb British troops at the Sidi el Barrani - Bir Enba area. They were to be escorted by nineteen CR.42s of 9o Gruppo led by Maggiore Botto. However the escort failed to rendezvous with the S.79s and Botto decided to patrol the front. 30 km south of Bir Enba they spotted some Gladiators at a lower level and dived on them, but suddenly the CR.42s were jumped by a reported two Squadrons of Hurricanes, attacking respectively 73a Squadriglia and 96a Squadriglia with 97a Squadriglia. A large dogfight started and many claims were submitted by the Italian pilots when they claimed eight shot down and three probables. At the end Botto, Sergente Enrico Dallari, Sergente Antonio Valle, Sergente Maggiore Otello Perotti and Sergente Angelo Golino claimed an enemy fighter each while Tenente Riccardo Vaccari, Sergente Maggiore Massimo Salvatore and Sergente Maggiore Guglielmo Biffani claimed one Hurricane each. Probables were claimed by Sottotenente Valerio De Campo, Giulio Reiner and Sergente Santo Gino. During the combat three Fiats were shot down but Sergente Nanin and Sergente Bogoni both survived while Sergente Maggiore Biffani baled out and was captured. Four other CR.42s carried out emergency landings (probably Viglione, Vaccari, Golino and a fourth unknown pilot). Three of these pilots were wounded, one of which turned over at the emergency landing and caught fire; the pilot (Tenente Vaccari) was badly burned. Another wounded pilot was Golino.
It seems that they had clashed with 33 Squadron, which reported that they had been intercepted by three formations of CR.42s while ground strafing. The British pilots claimed three and reported another going down out of control. One of the Squadron’s Hurricanes had to force-land but the pilot was saved. Flying Officer Vernon Woodward shot down two of the Fiats, one of them in flames, and damaged another.
The second squadron was probably 274, which reported meeting 27 CR.42s over the Sidi Barrani-Sofafi area. The Hurricane pilots reporting five confirmed victories and three probables for one Hurricane damaged. Victories were claimed by Flight Lieutenant Peter Wykeham-Barnes (plus one probable) (V7300), Squadron Leader Patrick Dunn (plus two probables) (P3723), Flying Officer T. L. Patterson (P3720), Flight Lieutenant Lapsley (V7293) and Flying Officer E. M. Mason (P3722).
Totally the Italian authorities declared they had shot down 18 RAF machines (at least one Blenheim) but admitted that they had lost twelve during the day.
That same day, after landing, Botto was involved in a car accident; he suffered a fracture at the base of the skull, but luckily again survived.
After convalescence he received administrative work before being assigned as commander of the Fighter School as a Tenente Colonello.
After the Italian surrender in September 1943 he virtually created the pro-German A.N.R. (Aeronautiva Nazionale Repubblicana) after that the Mussolini headed Repubblica Sociale Italiana (RSI) had been formed. He was however sacked from A.N.R. in March 1944.
Botto ended the war with 8 biplane victories. 5 of these were claimed during the Spanish Civil War.
During the war he was also decorated with the Medaglie d’argento.
Ernesto Botto passed away on 11 December 1984.
:twisted:
So carelessly...
guy on my avatar). First some general information :
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